To Lie on the Bottom Essay Example for Free

To Lie on the Bottom Essay There is a reason that World War II and the Holocaust are considered turning points in human history, a point from which everything changed: philosophy, art, music, film, architecture, politics, history, even the very concept of humanity was altered in an often imperceptible way. Something in us died; extinguished by a darkness so all-encompassing and cold that all hope and beauty and reason and love could not survive it, nothing could, not even God himself. This darkness, this ephemeral force worse than death eventually destroyed Primo Levi, but what it couldn’t destroy, was his soul. His soul witnessed and suffered something worse than death, â€Å"a journey towards nothingness, a journey down there, towards the bottom†(Levi, 17) and this tale from the very bottom of hell showed us a side of man never before seen. Dante’s Inferno where there is no God or heaven or right or wrong, but only hunger and despair. A moral hierarchy envisaged by the masterminds of the Final Solution, a cold, remorseless world where the innocent are destroyed and the strong enslaved. A world guided by the â€Å"ferocious law which states: ‘to he that has, will be given; from he that has not, will be taken away’. †(88) The hierarchy of this realm is distant from the rest of humanity, a timeless realm devoid of any remnants of what has been or what is yet to be. A barren, flat, colorless landscape scarred by never-ending paths of metal and wood all leading into the maw of a churning, smoke belching monster marked with a grim, foreboding preface â€Å"Arbeit Macht Frei, work gives freedom†(22). This is Auschwitz, a place unlike anywhere else in the annals of human history, â€Å"This is hell. Today, in our times, hell must be like this. A huge, empty room: we are tired, standing on our feet, with a tap which drips while we cannot drink the water, and we wait for something which will certainly be terrible, and nothing happens and nothing continues to happen†(22). In a place where the old, the young, and the weak are swallowed into the night and are gone forever, in a godless place like this nothing is as it should be. At the top of this mad house lies the most depraved of all, for in this place the insane rule over the sane, and the cold, mechanical fist of the S. S. is law. An extension of the mad-man responsible for this place, they are hand-picked and forged into thoughtless, remorseless killing machines and entrusted with Hitler’s most important goal: the destruction of the Jew. Little is said about these brutal men, they are above the camp and therefore distant from it, the camp to them is merely their work place and â€Å"they behave with the calm assurance of people doing their normal duty of every day. † At times they speak to the prisoners like animals whipping them into attention â€Å"in that curt, barbaric barking of Germans in command which seem to give vent to a millennial anger†, but during the selections when they decide who lives or dies with the slightest glance they are indifferent and speak â€Å"in a subdued tone of voice, with faces of stone†¦ We had expected something more apocalyptic: they seemed simple police agents. It was disconcerting and disarming†(19). Levi would soon discover that despite their outward appearance, these cold agents of doom were the most apocalyptic men on earth entrusted with the unspeakable mission of the destruction of his people. Below the SS men in the next rung of hell resided the ‘Prominenz’, inhabitants of Block 7 in which no regular prisoner has ever entered, they were â€Å"the aristocracy, the internees holding the highest post†(32). Below them were the Reichsdeutsche, the Aryan Germans, and the Kapos â€Å"they were particularly pitiless, vigorous and inhuman individuals, installed (following an investiture by the SS command, which showed itself in such choices to possess satanic knowledge of human beings) in the posts of Kapos, Blockaltester, etc†(89). These individuals established the backbone of authority, doling out punishment with reckless abandon knowing in the back of their heads if they showed the slightest hesitancy or remorse they would be quickly disposed of. Below them resided the rest of the political prisoners and British POW’s who were given special privileges and leniency. Below them resided the Jewish prominents: a sad and notable human phenomenon†¦ if one offers a position of privilege to a few individuals in a state of slavery, exacting in exchange the betrayal of a natural solidarity with their comrades, there will certainly be someone who will accept†¦ When he is given command of a group of unfortunates, with the right of life or death over them, he will be cruel and tyrannical, because he will understand that if he is not sufficiently so, someone else, judged more suitable, will take over his post. Moreover, his capacity for hatred, unfulfilled in the direction of the oppressors, will double back, beyond all reason, on the oppressed; and he will only be satisfied when he has unloaded on to his underlings the injury received from above. (91) These Jewish prominents were particularly hated by Levi and his fellow Jews and this hatred only served to further distance themselves from the rest of the group. Abhorrent as it may seem to abandon your compatriots and become part of the hated ruling class of the camp; the need to survive overrode any moral dilemma, because â€Å"in the Lager things are different: here the struggle to survive is without respite, because everyone is desperately and ferociously alone. †(88) There is no good and evil here because if you are not a prominent you are only ‘the saved and the drowned’. The saved and the drowned are those at the very bottom of hell with nothing between them and gas chamber, only those deemed capable and fit even survive the first day, the others are exterminated immediately. Most who remain quickly succumb to the all-consuming hunger and exhaustion of the camp, â€Å"their life is short, but their number is endless; they, the Muselmanner, the drowned, form the backbone of the camp, an anonymous mass, continually renewed and always identical, of non-men who march and labour in silence, the divine spark dead within them, already too empty to really suffer†(90). They are the forgotten masses of victims, abandoned by the world to their fate and quickly forgotten; no one remembers their names or their faces for they were condemned by all of humanity to a fate worse than death. â€Å"Imagine a man who is deprived of everyone he loves†¦, his house, his habits, his clothes†¦ everything he possesses: he will be a hollow man, reduced to suffering and needs, forgetful of dignity and restraint, for he who loses all often easily loses himself†(27). It’s in this way the Germans destroyed the humanity of a people before killing them further. The drowned are those who are unable to adapt, they sink down deep until it is too late for in this place â€Å"to sink is the easiest of matters†(90). After their children, women, and parents have all been swallowed up and everything they possess stolen, most give up. â€Å"They follow the slope down to the bottom, like streams that run down to the sea†(90). The saved are the few that remain, the ones who still battle for salvation, who have thrown off all moral constraints that hold them back, resolved to fight â€Å"against the current; to battle every day and every hour against exhaustion, hunger, cold and the resulting inertia; to resist enemies and have no pity for one’s rivals; to sharpen one’s wits, build up one’s patience, strengthen one’s will-power. Or else, to throttle all dignity and kill all conscience, to climb down into the arena as a beast against other beasts, to let oneself be guided by those unsuspected subterranean forces which sustain families and individuals in cruel times†(92). Elias, Schepschel, Alfred L. , and Henri, four very different men, all struggling on the own path to salvation, all willing to do anything; they are not good men, for a good man means nothing in here, all the good men died a long time ago or at least ceased to be good, for only scoundrels remain now. The Germans in a sense created â€Å"a gigantic biological and social experiment†(87), an alien world like no other in history, stripped of all moral and ethical boundaries, all reason and justice destroyed, replaced with a twisted, sadistic existence of perceived order masking the uncontrolled debauchery of it all. From this horror only a few are blessed with the talents needed to survive, some like Elias have â€Å"survived the destruction from outside, because he is physically indestructible; he has resisted the annihilation from within because he is insane†¦ he is a survivor†¦ the human type most suited to this way of living(97)†¦ Henri, on the other hand, is eminently civilized and sane†¦ he is extremely intelligent, speaks French, German, English, and Russian†¦ is perfectly aware of his natural gifts and exploits them with the cold competence of a physic using a scientific instrument†¦ there is nothing in the camp that he does not know and about which he has not reasoned in his close and coherent manner†¦ hard and distant, enclosed in armour, the enemy of all, inhumanly cunning and incomprehensible like the Serpent in Genesis†(98-100) Elias and Henri are two sides of the same coin, one physically invincible the other mentally, the rare, extraordinary survivors of a biological experiment gone too far, perfectly molded for the hostile world created to destroy them. They are interesting only in the fact that they are the statistical anomalies of a mathematically-precise extermination process, one which inevitably would destroy even them. Most who survive are not so lucky, not naturally blessed with ability or strength, but simply scratch and claw their way out. They learn quickly, they learn a little German, begin to make alliances with those who have something to offer. They steal when they can, grabbing anything of value, anything that can be traded for in the ‘Exchange Market’, â€Å"where scores of prisoners driven desperate by hunger prowl around, with lips half-open and eyes gleaming, lured by a deceptive instinct to where the merchandise shown makes the gnawing of their stomachs more acute and their salvation more assiduous†(78). These exchanges are necessary to survive, for to try to live with just the meager sustenance given is impossible, the system was created to destroy them, only by breaking the rules can one hope to survive. Often the saved are assisted by civilian workers or gain the favor of a Prominent who provides them with extra food or clothing. One of the few people Primo Levi’s speaks kindly of in the entire book is such a person, a civilian worker named Lorenzo. I believe that it was really due to Lorenzo that I am alive today; and not so much for his material aid, as for his having constantly reminded me by his presence, by his natural and plain manner of being good, that there existed a just world outside our won, something and someone still pure and whole, not corrupt, not savage, extraneous to hatred and terror; something difficult to define, a remote possibility of good, but for which it was worth surviving. The personages in these pages are not men. Their humanity is buried, or they themselves have buried it†¦ The evil and insane SS men, the Kapos, the political, the criminals, the prominents, great and small, down to the indifferent slave Haftlinge, all the grades of the mad hierarchy created by the Germans paradoxically fraternized in a uniform internal desolation. But Lorenzo was a man; his humanity was pure and uncontaminated, he was outside this world of negation. Thanks to Lorenzo, I managed not forget that I myself was a man. (121-122) Lorenzo represents the last vestige of a better world, a glimpse of sanity and reason that seems to no longer exist. He reminded Levi that there still remained a world outside the Lager, where humanity endured; that someday this world would no longer exist and your life would continue, and all that was thought lost forever would be returned to you. The Holocaust was not decided upon with anger, but with a cold, calculating necessity, hell-bent on destroying every Jew on Earth, to extinguish an entire people. To the Germans the Jews were a disease, a parasitic organism, which required extermination. The Jews of America and England, the Jews of the Soviet Union and of Spain, the Jews of North Africa and the Middle East, they were all to be dealt with eventually. This is the mindset of the creators of this alien world. The depravity of the camp; its cruel, ordered madness reflected the depravity and evil that emanated from the souls of those wicked men. The SS were their finest pupils, there most willing executioners, those entrusted with the sacred task of the Nazi regime: the destruction of its enemies, a war against all of humanity. The morals and ethics of their creation were the ethics and morals of Hitler himself, of Reinhard Heydrich, of Adolf Eichmann, of Heinrich Himmler, of Rudolph Hess, the masterminds of this unparalleled killing machine. This is what Primo Levi experienced deep down in the belly of the beast, inside the heart of darkness. The orchestra of the camp that emanated it throughout its boundaries â€Å"the perceptible expression of its geometrical madness†(51), the driving force behind this choreography of the dead. The SS instilled the camp with their notorious character, driven by their remorseless zeal, controlled by their obsessive discipline. The camp is as much a reflection of them as they are a reflection of their creators, the men who molded them into hardened killing machines. The lack of morals apparent in the camp derives itself from the lack of morals apparent in the individuals who created and ran it. The moral codes and fundamental laws of the Lager are based on three basic assumptions which in accordance formed a deranged society: â€Å"the privileged oppress the unprivileged†(44) and â€Å"to he that has, will be given; from he that has not, will be taken away†(88), and most importantly the complete inferiority of the Jew. The Jew was nothing, the slaves of the slaves, and everyone acted to continually reaffirm this assertion. The Kapos, the Blockaltesters, the cooks, the nurses, everyone, even the Jewish prominents constantly reminded the Jews of their inferiority, every rule and regulation instilled it further. For many non-Jews this place is nothing but a prison, they lived in relative comfort with adequate food, clothing, and shelter. As soon as they enter they are made at ease for at least there are many much worse off than they; they are given special privileges and â€Å"are automatically invested with offices as they enter the camp in virtue of their natural supremacy†¦no ‘Aryan’ Haftling was without a post, however modest†(90-91). For them Auschwitz is but a prison, but to the Jew on the contrary, â€Å"the Lager is not a punishment; for us, no end is foreseen and the Lager is nothing but a manner of living assigned to us, without limits of time, in the bosom of the Germanic social organism†(82-83). This ‘manner of living assigned’ to the Jews has the effect of reducing them to their most basic needs, their dignity and integrity stripped from them. When Levi first arrived he is still a man, cognizant and alive, searching in the distance for his loved ones, â€Å"at the other end of the platform; then we saw nothing more. Instead, two groups of strange individuals emerged into the light of the lamps. They walked in squads, in rows of three, with an odd, embarrassed step, head dangling in front, arms rigid. On their heads they wore comic berets and were all dressed in long striped overcoats, which even by night and from a distance looked filthy and in rags. We looked at each other without a word. It was all incomprehensible and mad, but one thing we had understood. This was the metamorphosis that awaited us. Tomorrow we would be like them†(20-21). They are transformed into tired beasts, desperate and alone, aware of only hunger and cold; they show no signs of solidarity or camaraderie, for in the Lager everyone is on his own. They must shut themselves off from reality to survive; they must dispose of all morality and thought before it destroys them. Only in this way can they survive and even then they are guaranteed nothing. They begin to despise themselves, the sad, pathetic faces they see each day, each a reflection of the other, all reduced to ghosts by the machinations of the Lager. This moral hierarchy based on the depraved morals of madmen, sought to destroy the soul of the Jewish people, to torture them into oblivion. They created a monstrous world, where the weak are crushed and the only escape was through the Chimney. This tragedy beyond all comparison in human history told a story. A story that must be told over and over again, no one should be allowed to forget them. Their stories are all the same â€Å"all full of tragic disturbing necessity†¦ simple and incomprehensible like the stories in the Bible. But are they not themselves stories of a new Bible? †(65-66). This new Bible, this new Exodus would renew the life of the Jewish people, and like all the times before they would begin again. They survived â€Å"to tell the story, to bear witness†¦ to save at least the skeleton, the scaffolding, the form of civilization†(41) and with their help the world would be revived, its humanity restored, and that alien world destroyed and those responsible for it punished. The Lager would remain, a stark reminder of â€Å"what man’s presumption made of man in Auschwitz. †(55)

The detection of online child abuse in UK

The detection of online child abuse in UK Introduction The explosion and availability of the internet have seen huge advancements in the world of communications and business. However, along with the benefits the internet has created a new environment for criminals to engage in criminal activity. Theft and fraud are the more common crimes committed on the internet but a more disturbing crime is on the increase. Child abuse has been around for centuries but with advancements in technology, the upsurge in social networking sites and instant messenger services, children are now at greater risk from online sexual abuse within their own homes as the PC, gaming consoles and even mobile phones become the gateways for abusers and organised networks of criminals to prey. This reports aims to look at the way the United Kingdom legal system alongside national and international agencies are working together in order to tackle the growing problem of online child abuse. This report will also highlight cases of abusers who have been jailed for their crimes and also highlight the roles played by Internet Service providers, the media, charities, education and families who all have a role to play in keeping children safe online. What Constitutes Child Abuse? In order to discuss the prosecution and detection of child abuse, it is important to primarily define the term child abuse. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 1999) the term child abuse refers to the ill treatment of children which includes sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect and exploitation that results in actual or potential harm to the childs health, development or dignity (World Health Organisation, 1999) or in its purest form when an adult intentionally hurts a child under the age of 18 (NSPCC, 2011). It is difficult to define the term online child abuse as it encompasses all of the charcteristics of the current definition of child abuse as already described however, the term online reflects the methodology deployed by the offenders. Online child abuse has many characteristics, e.g., bullying, and more serious offences such as creating and downloading images of sexually abused children or approaching children to engage in sexual conduct either o nline or offline (HUWY, 2011) now legally known as grooming under The Sexual Offences Act 2003 (s14 s15). A well publicised example of this was witnessed In Durham Crown Court, March 2010, where Peter Chapman was convicted of sexually assaulting and murdering 17 year old girl Ashleigh Hall who he had lured through the social networking site Facebook. He created the persona of a teenage youth in order to lure Ashleigh Hall into meeting him (Stokes, P, 2010). At the trial it is estimated Chapman had used the social networking site to make contact with 2981 females between the ages of 13 and 31 (Armstrong, et al., 2010). Internet Usage Since 2001, the number of children using the internet has increased dramatically. A report commisioned by the London School of Economics in 2005 (UK Children Go Online) estimated in the 9 to 19 years age group, 75% of children had internet access at home, rising to 92% access at school (Livingstone, et al., 2005). A report by Ofcom in 2008 indicated that 35% of all 12 to 15 year olds had access to the internet in their bedrooms, 16% of 8 to 11 year olds and even children in the 5 to 7 year age group accounted for 3% (OFCOM, 2009). As technology has developed and the internet is now more accessible through other platforms such as mobile phone technology and online gaming consoles, the UK Council for Child Internet Child Safteys Click Clever Click safe campaign highlighted the Ofcom report by revealing that of the 44 million people who currently have internet access in the UK, 99% were in the 8 to 17 year age group (OFCOM2009 cited in UKCCIS, 2009). Although it is virtually impossible to quantify the total number of unprosecuted online child abuse offences, a report conducted in 2000 by the Internet Crime forum (ICF) estimated that 1 in 5 children online had been approached by paedophiles or other undesirables online (cited in Childnet, 2001). In view of the increasing usage of the internet and mounting crime against children committed online, in 2007, the Labour Government sanctioned an independent review into child online safety and commissioned Dr Tanya Byron to produce a report detailing the risks and effects of children surfing online. The Safer Children in a Digital World report was published in April 2008 and recommended a national strategy for Child Safety and a shared culture of responsibility in order to sustain safety (Byron, 2008). The report focused on the need for legislation, education and parents to all play their role in internet safety. The childrens charity Barnardos as recently as January 2011 reported in their publication Puppet on a String, (Barnardos, 2011) the dangers of child exploitation both on and offline. Using figures recorded by CEOP, Barnardos revealed a 16% year on year increase of reported crimes of which 25% were directly of an online nature. In 2008/9, 5411 crimes were recorded and by 2009/10 that had increased to 6291 (CEOP, 2010). As well as potential for criminal contact between adults and children, the internet has become a portal for offenders to upload and view images an videos of children engaged in sexual acts. There are no official or unofficial figures on the number of child abuse images on the internet but of the 34,871 websites reported to the Internet Watch Foundation in 2007, 85% of those contained images of children in a sexual nature (IWF, 2008). Undoubtedly the rise in internet use and availability of web services will create opportunities for offenders to distribute indecent photographs and videos of abused children, hence the number of pictures will inevitably increase. (Taylor, et al, 2003 cited: Byron, 2008, 3.41, p51). As the use of the internet by children increases and its portability through technology advances further, its is increasingly more important that children, parents and teachers are more aware and knowledgeable of the dangers of being online. This goes hand in hand with mechanisms in place to prevent and report unsolicited or criminal activity and adequate legislation to convict offenders of these heinous crimes. Online Child Abuse and UK Law Legislation created to protect children and subsequently prosecute those guilty of child abuse offences in the United Kingdom falls under many acts of legislation in the UK legal system. The Children and Young Persons Act of 1933, (part 1, c12) still in force today, states the legal obligation to protect children from the prevention of Cruelty and Exposure to Moral and Physical Danger (Childrens and Young Persons Act 1933, c12, 2011). Section 1 (1) of The Indecency with Children Act of 1960, goes further by stating it is an offence to individually or with another incite or engage in acts of gross indecency with a child (Childnet, 2001) and is therefore liable for conviction . Today the legislation for the protection of children online or offline is rooted in The Children Act (1989) and the Sexual Offences Act of 2003. Section 31 of The Children Act states that harm to a child legally constitute the ill-treatment, impairment of health or development of a child which can include sexual abuse and non physical ill treatment (The Children Act 1989, 2011)S31, [f3, (9). The Protection of Children Act 1978 (England and Wales) (c.37) states it is illegal to take, possess, distribute or publish indecent photographs of children under the age of 16 [f22,(6). In May 2004, The Sexual Offences Act (2003, S.45), amended the age limit to include children up to the age of 18 unless defendants could prove they were a) in a relationship with the child involved (section 1A (1) and b) the child had consented to the photographs being taken (section 1A (4). In April 2008, The Police and Justice Act (2008, s39,) revised section 11 of The Protection of Children Act 1978 further by giving the police the powers to remove and retain indecent photographs of children under the age of 18 unless the defendant could prove they had a legitimate reason for being in possession of such material (IWF,2011). In August 2008, Paul Hagan was charged and convicted in Teesside Crown Court for possessing 15,000 child abuse images and distributing nearly 4400 to others. It is estimated that the website collectively had nearly a million indecent images and video clips relating to child abuse (Hunter, 2010). Computer generated Images, not necessarily photographs that depict or infer children engaging in sexual activity are also illegal and fall under the remit of the Coroners and Justice Act (2009) pt2, ch2, (65). This Act defines an image as a moving or still image produced by any means (legislation.gov.uk, 2011) Where the offence involves technology, Online Child abuse is still dealt with as an offence against the child and is determined and punishable also under many acts of the UK legal system in both the criminal and civil courts. However, new legislation incorporates the new methodologies of Child abuse not applicable in for example the creation of The Children and Young Persons Act of 1933; a time when information technology was not invented. The Sexual Offences Act of 2003 was produced as a result of a government investigation in 2000 into sexual offences. The Home Secretary at that time, David Blunkett, viewed the existing legislation and legally and socially outdated and inadequate to deal with mounting public pressure to deal seriously with sex offenders and also to reflect changing social attitudes. (Batty, D, 2003). The Sexual Offences Act (c42, Part 1 sections 14 15) relates to the relatively new offence of sexual grooming. Sexual grooming in the UK is legally defined as communicating with a child with the intention of meeting in order to commit a sexual offence (The National Archives, 2010). If an adult (a person over the age of 18) is seen to have attempted to make contact and arrange to meet with a child on more than one occasion with the intention of committing a sexual act, they will be liable to prosecution under the Sexual offences Act of 2003 s15, (1)(a). Successful prosecutions of this offence can lead to prison sentences of ten years (Sexual Offences Act 2003 s15, (4)(b). Further to this revision, another new law came into force to further protect children further. Under Section 42 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 part 2, 123 (a)(b), A senior police chief can apply to the courts for a civil Risk of Sexual Harm Order (The Crown Prosecution Service, 2011) against an adult who has previo usly been involved in illicit conduct with a child on more than one occasion even if they may not have necessarily been convicted of such crime. The Risk of Sexual Harm order serves to protect children by placing a minimum of a 2 year order on an adult considered to be a threat to not engage in any form of sexual activity, whether it is verbal, via instant messaging services or in internet chat room (Blackburn City Council, 2011) . On conviction of any sexual offence whether online or offline involving a child (post 1997), the offender is placed on the Sex Offenders Register and will have to comply with orders governed under Sexual Offences Act (2003) c42, part 2, Section 81 (1) that relate to the Sex Offenders Act (1997) pt1. Under this act the offenders must report to a Police station within 3 days of conviction and inform of any address changes or movement which may involve them being away from their current address for more than 7 days. Failure to comply can result in a 5 year jail term (CPS, 2011). Offenders can remain on the sex offenders register indefinitely if their conviction for this offence resulted in a 30 month or more jail sentence. For jail sentences of a lesser term, the length of time spent on the register is seven to ten years or half that time if the offender is less than 18 years old (Batty, 2006). Having served jail sentences and being placed on the Sex Offenders register, under the Proceeds of Crime Act (2002) and the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act (2005) (SOCA, 2011), the police now have the power to remove/seize assets of offenders that have been made through Child abuse offences. This act enables police to confiscate goods through any criminal conduct deemed so in UK law. (The Guardian, 2009). Detecting Online Abuse Responsibility for the detection and prosecution of offline and increasingly more online Child abuse crimes in the UK involves a myriad of specialised agencies. The sensitive nature of this crime requires specialist, sensitive and professional management from the start of an investigation to the end from the childs perspective and the alleged offender. Successful convictions are to be commended; yet cases where there has been an arrest but no conviction can have ominous consequences for those involved. The Government, Crown Prosecution Service, E crime units at local police forces, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), charities such as The Internet Watch Foundation, local authorities and education all play a role in the protection of children from child abuse. The UK collaborates with European directives and international organisations in order to share information and specialist advice. At European level, the Council of European Convention on the Protection of Children against sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse came into force in July 2010 (CET.201), stating each member states responsibility to protect children and enforce the law on child abuse offences (EU, 2010) in accordance with Section . Further to this, there are currently proposals to extend the powers each governments hold further to force internet service providers to adhere to the Internet Watch Foundations (IWF) block list of offending web sites and remove the site from the host (Williams, 2011). On a worldwide level, The Virtual Global Taskforce is an example of one such organisation that operates on an international level. The Global Virtual Taskforce was formed in 2003 and consists of 7 multinational police forces from countries such as The UK, Canada and Australia who pool information and strategies in order to protect and educate children and ensure prosecution of offenders (VGT, 2011). Interpol also have a central database of suspects and the movement of offenders whom it shares with specialised units within police forces worldwide known as the International Child Sex Exploitation image Database (ICSE-DB) (INTERPOL, 2010). Interpol also release what are termed as green notices to organisations involved in Child abuse detection to warn of the movement of a convicted offender who may have located in their area (INTERPOL, 2010). Child Exploitation and Online Protection Service (CEOP) The key taskforce currently operating in the UK today created specifically to report, detect and tackle the growing problem of online child abuse is the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Service, otherwise known as CEOP. CEOP was created in 2006 as an independent central unit for detecting individuals and paedophile rings that use the internet to commit such crimes. All UK reported cases of Child abuse whether relating to on or offline offences are reported to CEOP. CEOP was the result of the creation of the Serious Organised Crime Agency (2006) (SOCA) which in turn overhauled the National Hi-tech Crime Unit of 2001 (NHTCU). The NHTCU was originally created to tackle the growing problem of all crime committed on the internet. With the creation of SOCA, the NHTCU was incorporated into SOCAs E crime unit and online crimes against the child fell under the remit of CEOP. CEOP is a multi professional unit of the police force which operates alongside and with the full power of the law. Based on information received, CEOP has the authority to investigate and on successful proof of evidence, prosecute offenders The organisation consists of highly trained police officers, IT experts, with assistance from internet service providers (ISP), local authorities, psychologists and educational agencies who collaborate in order to identify, locate and protect children from potential abuse (CEOP, 2006-10). The organisation has an online reporting mechanism on their website for the public to use if they suspect or have been a victim of child abuse. It also holds a database of the most wanted suspects who are currently wanted for questioning in relation to child sex abuse offences. CEOP have also created with the assistance of social networking sites like Facebook, a panic button known as ClickCEOP enabling children to click and report unsolicited or potentially criminal activity (Allan, 2010). The main function of CEOPS is the detection of online crime against children. Intelligence gathering is one of the key activities of the organisation and involves working nationally and internationally with police forces and experts to coordinate information and track activity across computer networks. CEOP also with the assistance of other agencies attempts to trace convicted offenders who have contravened their conditions determined under the Sex Offenders register. With the authority from The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2002, (RIPA), CEOP is able to share information with other police authorities and non police agencies e.g. local government authorities and councils, as the knock on effects of Child abuse often will require intervention from Social services departments. CEOP is a multi faceted organisation. As well as crime detection CEOP operates preventative measures and works alongside other organisations e.g. NSPCC and software companies like Microsoft to help eradicate online child abuse. It also plays a major role in the education and training of professionals who work within this field, e.g. police officers, social workers and regards itself as a truly holistic organisation that not only deals with the responsibility of detecting crime but works as an agency that endeavours through research and detection methods to trace movement of offenders and offences. This technique known as crime mapping facilitates in locating individuals and organised gangs and pinpoints areas where these crimes have been committed in order to forewarn local police forces and monitor offenders before they offend again. CEOP also aim to educate and promote awareness of safely using the internet through its campaigns such as its thinkuknow website which was developed to educate children and adults responsible for the web safety of children (Thinkuknow, 2007). Since its launch in 2006, CEOP and its associated agencies have seen dramatic rises in the numbers of offenders successfully brought to justice. Official figures from the CEOP website indicate in the years 2009-10, 1121 offenders were arrested compared to 83 in 2006-07 (CEOP, 2010). In the same period, the organisation has also been responsible for smashing 262 paedophile networks in comparison to 29 in 2006-7 (CEOP , 2010). The creation of a National Crime Agency in 2013, proposed by the current Government will see the merger of CEOP with SOCA and the UK Border Agency into one solitary unit. This has been met with in trepidation by those involved as there are fears CEOP will lose its independence and ability to provide a holistic service. The former head of CEOP, Jim Gamble resigned his post believing the move away from a dedicated child abuse unit will seriously but children at risk and return the service to a police department with little scope for all the other services the organisation currently provides(Booth, 2010) (Police Oracle, 2011). The Internet Watch Foundation Another key organisation involved in the fight against online child exploitation is the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF). The IWF is a registered charity formed in 1996 by members of the internet industry. Funded by the EU, the IWF operates alongside law enforcement agencies including CEOP and the internet industry and attains to tackle, block and remove illegal content on the web. The IWF does not have the legal powers of CEOP as it is not part of the UK police force but works and reports to the police on all website activity it investigates and is considered illegal under UK Law. THE IWF operates in conjunction with CEOP and operates a notice and takedown policy (IWF, 1996-2011) which enables them to block or remove UK websites which host illegal content. Where the images are hosted internationally the IWF can block UK access and then informs the relevant agencies of the country where the material is hosted. The IWF does not have the authority to remove content held on international servers and different laws apply in different countries, i.e. what the UK may deem offensive or containing criminal content might not be the case in another country. Amongst its other remit the IWF operates an online reporting mechanism on their internet homepage asimilar to the one provided by CEOP that enables internet users to report websites that may contain indecent images of children or criminal content. The IWF maintain a database or block list of websites believed to host illegal content which it distributes to internet services providers, mobile phone and communications o perators both nationally and internationally. This enables those in the industries to take action to break up networks of crime. Since its Launch in 1996, the IWF has dramatically reduced the volume of child abuse content hosted by UK websites. In 2003 criminal content known to the IWF stood at 1% compared to 18% in 1997 (IWF, 1996-2011). In 2007, the IWFs annual report revealed they were aware of 2755 publicly available websites not hosted in the UK that were displaying child abuse images (IWF, 2008) Case Study: Operation Ore One of the largest and most controversial UK investigations into online child abuse occurred in 1999 and resulted in the arrest of over 3700 men in the UK for online child abuse offences (Hirsch, et al., 2010). The ramifications of this investigation are still ongoing today and heralds the need for those involved in Child abuse detection and prosecution to ensure technological advances and considerations are at fundamental to the enquiry in order to reflect that the evidence is proven beyond a reasonable doubt. The National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS), which preceded CEOP ran an enquiry termed as Operation Ore and was the upshot of an existing investigation into online child pornography in the United States knows as Operation Avalanche. Operation Avalanche was an investigation involving a married couple from Dallas, Texas in April 1999. Thomas and Janice Reedy had amassed a personal fortune by creating a network of websites trading as Landslide productions, which enabled users to subscribe to access predominantly adult porn sites. Within the website there was an opportunity to access child abuse images. Although Thomas Reedy had not created, uploaded or hosted the images or websites, he had facilitated others to use the Landslide website as a portal to child pornography websites based in other countries. On their arrest, US police officers discovered a list of 300,000 credit card holders from 60 countries who had subscribed to the Landslide website (CBC News, 2003). On receipt of t his list, the US police authorities informed the UK police that within those credit card numbers found, approximately 7000 of those were UK based and proceeded to provide the UK police force with the names of those involved (BBC, 2002) . On the substantiation of the credit card details provided by the US authorities, the UK police began the largest investigation into online child abuse offences ever witnessed in the UK. Of the 7000 names exchanged, it is estimated that more than 2600 of those have been convicted of child abuse offences (Wardrop, 2009) and all of those cautioned and convicted have been placed on the sex offenders register (The Yorkshire Post, 2009). Operation Avalanche was heralded as a triumph in the fight against child abuse crimes in the United States. The US investigation was commended for the professional manner in which it handled the operation. Of the 35,000 suspected offenders, following meticulous investigations, 144 homes were searched and 100 people arrested (Campbell, 2005). In the UK, all of the names on the list were immediately placed on the sex offenders register before investigations had been completed (The Yorkshire Post, 2009). CEOP who took over the investigation from the NCIS also judge the ongoing operation to be a complete success having cautioned or convicted 2600 offenders (Laville, 2009). The Operation Ore investigation is not without controversy. Many believe that the basis for prosecution was solely placed on the credit card details passed to UK authorities with little thought given to the actuality that subscribers may not have consciously accessed the links directing them to child abuse images or knew the website presented such a service. As the website was predominantly directed at adult pornography, the vast majority users would have admitted to paying for adult services. The names of those alleged offenders were also leaked to a national newspaper, the Sunday Times, (Cullen, 2003) and included professionals and high profile names from the music industry of which many were publicly named causing widespread distress. This in turn also victimised those on the list before they had the opportunity to defend themselves. It is estimated that over 30 of those accused of viewing child abuse images have committed suicide in the wake of Operation Ore (Oates, 2006). Gibraltar based Forces Commodore, David White, was suspended of his duties and took his own life in 2005 having been investigated under Operation Ore. At the inquest, the Ministry of Defence police has written to the Navy to confer there was no substantive evidence (Herbert, 2005) to prove that Commodore White had partaken in any of the crimes he was accused of. An additional concern of the enquiry was that no consideration had been given to the possibility of credit card identity theft. One such instance of this was the case of Consultant Dr Paul Grout who was under investigation and in April 2004 successfully proved his innocence in Hull Crown Court. Dr Grout had paid for a restaurant meal in the UK by the means of his credit card; his details had been fraudulently stolen and had fallen into the hands of a user in the United States (Leppard, 2005). In a recent case not under the remit of Operation Ore, a man was acquitted of downloading child pornography at Southwark Crown Court in October 2010 and awarded  £180,000 in damages after his PC had been affected by a virus. In the process of the investigation the accused, Chris Singam, had been originally investigated by the Fraud squad rather than specialists in online child sex abuse crime. Mr Singam had been found not guilty based on the evidence of a computer specialist who provided technical evidence to prove that the computers in his office had been attacked by a virus and he had not intentionally download illegal images (Welham, 2010). In the process of the investigation, Mr Singams business had collapsed and he had been ostracised by the local community (Shorter, 2010). Although these cases should not reflect away from the successful convictions for these offences, Operation Ore has exposed the human effects of those involved in Child abuse investigations. The effects on family life and career progression will have far reaching consequences even if the accused is found not guilty. An expert witness, Duncan Campbell, who gave evidence in one of the many Operation Ore investigations, reflects on the stigma attached to individuals in these cases and argues that internet users in such cases can become the victims through a combination of technical naivety and fear (Campbell, 2005). It is also clear that technology raises many issues than is evident in offline child abuse cases. Establishing guilt through a users PC or mobile phone records may prove difficult. Although technology can provide the trails of data evidence, it cannot necessarily prove the activity was paved through the actions of the accused. That will require the use of highly trained specialists to work alongside traditional policing methods to successfully prove liability. Conclusion Undoubtedly the Internet has given those who partake in online child sex abuse, a gateway to view pornographic images and an effortless passage through social networking sites and messenger services the potential to sexually abuse children offline. Keeping safe 99% of children in the UK between the ages of 8 and 17 years old with internet access is a colossal task. In view of the rise in internet service and the number of children using the internet, it is evident that the Government through legislation and policing, alongside the internet industry, educational and charitable organisations are proactively working to make the internet a safer place. Revisions of outdated Acts of Parliament are enabling the courts to prosecute offenders under new laws as technology increasingly plays its role in crime. However, technology moves faster than legislation and the Law may not be prepared for technological advances. Educating children and parents through online safety campaigns such as the thinkuknow campaign will alert users not only to the dangers of internet use and will empower them to report suspected crimes making the internet a safer place for others. This could be improved further by television campaigns to reach a wider audience. Dedicated UK specialist organisations such as CEOP and the IWF are working in collaboration with national, European and International organisations to pool data resources as networks of internet crimes operate on a global level. This can only benefit the fight against child online abuse as networks cover global areas. However, there is not a global strategy or organisation in which all countries participate. The Virtual Global taskforce could extend to include other countries in order to be truly international. And finally, Operation Ore reminds us of the emotive nature of involvement in Child abuse cases whether on or offline. Although a large number of offenders were successfully and rightly prosecuted under this investigation, large numbers of those have been left with a lifelong stigma which surrounds this type of offence due to flaws in technical evidence. The need for highly specialised experts is paramount to ensure not only the safety of children on the internet but to bring offenders to justice for their crimes and to protect those not guilty of these crimes from persecution.

The Dispossessed and Invisible Man :: Invisible Man Essays

The Dispossessed and Invisible Man      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Darko Suvin defines science fiction as "a literary genre whose necessary and sufficient conditions are the presence and interaction of estrangement and cognition, and whose main formal device" (Suvin 7-8) is a fictional "novum . . . a totalizing phenomenon or relationship" (Suvin 64), "locus and/or dramatis personae . . . radically or at least significantly" alternative to the author's empirical environment "simultaneously perceived as not impossible within the cognitive (cosmological and anthropological) norms of the author's epoch" (Suvin viii). Unlike fantasy, science fiction is set in a realistic world, but one strange, alien. Only there are limits to how alien another world, another culture, can be, and it is the interface between those two realms that can give science fiction its power, by making us look back at ourselves from its skewed perspective.    The Dispossessed takes as its novum a general theory of time, illustrated by the paradox of a rock thrown at a tree, a rock that can never reach its target because "there's always half of the way left to go" (Le Guin 26). Shevek, Le Guin's protagonist and formulator of the general temporal theory, sees himself as one who "'unbuilds walls'" (Le Guin 289), as the "primal number, that [is] both unity and plurality" (Le Guin 30) crossing interfaces. Walls abound in The Dispossessed: the wall between Anarres and Urras (Le Guin 1-2), the wall that separates one individual from every other (Le Guin 6), the wall of social conscience (Le Guin 287), the wall between men and women (Le Guin 14-16), the wall of time--Zeno's paradox--the limit that prevents the rock from striking the tree (Le Guin 26).    But as Shevek knows, the rock does strike the tree; that is the joke (Le Guin 27). The wall can be crossed. He crosses it when he leaves Anarres; he crosses it in his love for Takver and Sadik; he crosses it with the Syndic of Iniative, and he crosses it with the Terrans and the Hainish. This need to "unbuild walls" is his "'cellular function,'" his "moral choice," but it is "process" and not "end," a "journey and return" and not merely a "repetitive, atemporal" cycle (Le Guin 290-291). The paradox of sequence and simultaneity is that nothing stays the same; it is not the same river going past the bank, or the same wind blowing through the same tree as last spring.

1880-1890 :: Essays Papers

1880-1890 The decade from 1880-1890 was an interesting time for America, giving rise to great advancement in architecture, inventions and businesses. For instance, such now famous companies as Sears Roebuck Company, DeBeers and Johnson & Johnson opened in this time (Timeline). Also, the Brooklyn Bridge, the largest suspension bridge in the world was set up in 1883 (Museum). This decade saw another milestone for architecture, the skyscraper. The first skyscraper, built in Chicago out of an all-iron frame, was completed in 1885. Some famous inventions included gasoline engines, the Kodak camera and electric lamps (Timeline). Another first was free mail. Towards the end of this decade, free mail was being delivered to all community populations of at least 10,000 (Timeline). Clara Barton, a major humanitarian, was the leader behind the establishment of the American Red Cross during this time (Timeline). In 1886, Americans got their first good look at the Statue of Liberty with its opening dedication in the New York Harbor (Hurley). On a National scale this decade saw various events being played out across the world. For instance in Germany advancements were being made in science and social reform. An example of this would be, Pasteur’s first use of the vaccination principal and the Germany’s establishment of the first known health insurance (Goff). The French in the 1880’s were developing new techniques in architecture and waging wars. That is, towards the end of this decade the Eiffel Tower was just being completed and the French were waging a war with the Chinese (Sino-Chinese War) over trading rights (History). The British were busy responding to anti-foreign riots in Egypt, eventually leading to their invasion and capturing of Cairo (History). Neighboring Belgium was concerned with more peaceful, recreational matters, such as their hosting of the first beauty contest in 1888 (Time). In the 1880’s the movement known as Impressionism was coming to an end. The eight and last Impressionist exhibition was held in Paris during 1886 (Time). Although Impressionism was coming to an end new forms of art arose to take its place. Some famous artists producing during this time include, Van Gogh, Georges Seurat, and Odilon Redon (Georges). Odilon Redon started his own movement known as Symbolism, which strives to give form to ideas and emotions (Odilon). Another painter responsible for creating a new style is Georges Seurat. Seurat was a French painter who popularized and developed his own style called pointillism.

bowling report Essay -- essays research papers

Bowling Report Bowling has a long and rich history, and today is one of the most popular sports in the world. A British anthropologist, Sir Flinders Petrie, discovered in the 1930's a collection of objects in a child's grave in Egypt that appeared to him to be used for a crude form of bowling. If he was correct, then bowling traces its ancestry to 3200 BC. A German historian, William Pehle, asserted that bowling began in his country about 300 AD. There is substantial evidence that a form of bowling was in vogue in England in 1366, when King Edward III allegedly outlawed it to keep his troops focused on archery practice. And it is almost certain that bowling was popular during the reign of Henry VIII. By this time, too, there were many variations of "pin" games, and also of games where a ball was thrown at objects other than pins. This would seem to imply that the games had developed over time, from an earlier period. One of the most eccentric games is still found in Edinburgh. The player swings a fingerless ball between his legs and heaves it at the pins. In doing so, he "flops" onto the lane on his stomach. There were and still are many variations of ninepins in Western Europe. Likely related are the Italian bocce, the French petanque, and British lawn bowling. Undoubtedly, the English, Dutch and German settlers all imported their own variations of bowling to America. The earliest mention of it in serious American literature is by Washington Irving, when Rip Van Winkle awakens to the sound of "crashing ninepins". The first permanent American bowling location probably was for lawn bowling, in New York's Battery area. Now the heart of the financial district, New Yorkers still call the small plot Bowling Green. The game had its ups and downs in America. An 1841 Connecticut law made it illegal to maintain "any ninepin lanes", probably because bowling was the object of much gambling. But the problem, of course, also evidenced its popularity. Also, many captains of industry chose to install a lane in their mansions. While it is uncertain where the tenpin game evolved, by the late 1800s it was prevalent in many states such as New York, Ohio and as far "west" as Illinois. However, details like ball weights and pin dimensions varied by region. But that changed when restauranteur Joe Thum fin... ...h (final) frame, they are allowed two more deliveries. If a player makes a spare in the tenth frame, they are allowed one more delivery. Generally, the scorecards are marked with symbols to say what happened. A strike is marked by X A spare is marked by / A miss (where no pins were scored from a ball) by a - A foul is marked by F A number states how many pins were scored. There are two boxes per frame for each ball, except the final frame, which has three boxes, to allow for a strike or spare in the final frame. The score adds up throughout the ten frames to provide the finishing score. Career opportunities There are many careers directly or indirectly connected to bowling. Being a professional Bowler is the most obvious career opportunity, and probably the one with the best chance to get rich. Another way to work with bowling would be as a bowling coach or trainer. As a member of the ABA or ABC you can get involved in national bowling issues without actually practicing the sport. Strike Ten offers many job indirectly related to bowling. Strike Ten is the centralized marketing, management, television and licensing company for the bowling industry in the United States.

A Review of the Role of Entrepreneurship in Stimulating Economic Growth Essay

They also further states that entrepreneurs have been responsible for growth and development over the centuries and are identified as the key role players in the economy of every country. The paper identifies the different definitions of an entrepreneur which are identified as the different channels in which entrepreneurship lead to economic growth, reduced unemployment and increased levels of income among countries. As a result of the role of entrepreneurship in any country, most countries emphasises on integrating entrepreneurial activity in its economic policy. A discussion is made on developing economies mainly South Africa, China, Brazil and Russia comparing the entrepreneurial activity within the economies. Economic growth is best defined as a long-term expansion of the productive potential of the economy. It is measured by the comparing the difference between the Gross National Product (GNP) in a year with the GNP of the previous year. A growing economy is when the difference is positive. The term simply refers to an increase in the ability to produce goods and services. It is easier to define unemployment when there is an understanding of the term economic growth. Unemployment refers to when a person who is actively searching for employment cannot find work to do. This is an instrument used to determine the healthiness of an economy. After knowing the levels of unemployment in an economy, determining the level of income distribution becomes a bit projected. The level of income in an economy refers to the way in which in money is distributed among the population in an economy. The above three defined terms has a link to each other. The level of economic growth have a direct proportional influence on the possible jobs available in the economy while a reciprocal relationship exist between the level of income in the particular economy and levels of unemployment. The level of income is directly proportional to economic growth. Also, the level of unemployment is directly proportional to the level of income in an economy. However, all the above aspects are influenced by the level of entrepreneurship in the particular economy. An economy with high activity of entrepreneurship is more likely to be characterized by high economic growth, reducing levels of unemployment and increasing levels of income while an economy with low entrepreneurial activity on the other hand can be characterized by low economic growth, high levels of unemployment and low levels of income. Entrepreneurship cannot be separated from the following terms â€Å"economic growth†, â€Å"employment† and â€Å"country income level distribution† as all the entrepreneurial activities contribute largely to economic growth, levels of employment and income distribution. Different nature of entrepreneurs stimulates the growth of an economy in different ways. In any country with high levels of entrepreneurial activities or which experienced high entrepreneurial activity, the economy tends to be of middle to high income and the unemployment levels tend to be decreasing if not low. However, economies with low income distribution are characterised by low entrepreneurial activities and mostly, there are significant levels of unemployment. Such low income economies have high records of poverty which leads them to seek donors. Different authors made contributions on this topic and this paper compares and links the information obtained into a comprehensive review. The term entrepreneurship has been defined by Schumpeter (1934) as lying in the perceptions and exploration of new opportunities in the realm of business. He further states that it always has to do with bringing about a different use of resources in that they are withdrawn from their traditional employ and subjected to new combinations. Schumpeter relates entrepreneurship to be influenced by entrepreneurs who are innovative and hese people have to be extra-ordinary as they have to come up with extra-ordinary events. They come up with new technological possibilities hence are able to establish large businesses from these. Carland etal. (1984) confirms that an entrepreneur is someone innovative and further says that he or she employs strategic management practices in the business. Timmons (2000) believes entrepreneurship as the process of creating a nd seizing an opportunity and pursuing it, regardless of resources currently controlled. Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009) define an entrepreneur as the person who sees an opportunity in the market, gathers resources and creates and grows a business venture to meet these needs. They also further states that he or she bears risk of the venture and is rewarded with profit if it succeed. With different definitions of entrepreneurship defined by different authors through the way they define an entrepreneur, the researcher generally defines entrepreneurship as the act of being an entrepreneur who establishes business through the organisation of resources taking risk with the aim of realising profit. The Schumpeterian entrepreneur as defined above is innovative. In support for this, Curran and Stanworth (1989) defines entrepreneurship as the creation of new economic entity centred on a novel product or service or, or at the very least, one which differs significantly from products or services offered elsewhere in the market. Such entrepreneurs play a very crucial role in stimulating economic growth. They come up with huge organisations which can be monopolies in the economy. With the nature of big businesses, they would be more likely to produce large volumes of product increasing the GNP thereby contributing significantly to economic growth. With their capacity to produce large volumes, such organisation would take considerable number of employees hence reducing unemployment. By employing people, such entrepreneurs contribute to the increased levels of income in an economy. Another author Kirzner presents a different way in which entrepreneurship can be influenced by an entrepreneur through the way he defines an entrepreneur. According to Kirzner, the entrepreneur is someone who is alert to profitable opportunities for exchange. Such an entrepreneur believes in gathering the needed information, refining and providing it to those in need of it. Such entrepreneurs act as intermediaries for example between suppliers and customers. They are also very important in the growth of an economy as they facilitate inception, incubation of businesses through the provision of supportive information. The information they provide acts as a catalyst into venturing into business and builds confidence to emerging businesses. Emerging businesses require business support for them to have high chances of success hence the Kirzner entrepreneur makes the perfect match for such new businesses whose success lies on business support services. Such an entrepreneur can offer business support services such as business counselling, business mentoring and business incubation.

Apush Vietnam War Essay

It is obvious that the wars impact the involving powers. The Vietnam War greatly changed America forever. It was the longest war fought in America’s history, lasting from 1955 to 1973. The Vietnam War tarnished America’s self-image by becoming the first time in history the United States failed to accomplish its stated war aims, to preserve a separate, independent, non communist government. The war also had great effects on the American people. It was the first war ever broadcast on television. The public was able to see what happened on the battlefield. One of the chief effects of the war was the division it caused among the people. Americans have never been as divided since the Civil war. This war would have lasting effects on the United States. The Vietnam War took longer than America had expected and its short term failures and the long lasting permanent defeat caused America a great loss of military, loss of human resources and most deadly, the loss of American hope. During the four years it took Nixon to end the war, he expanded the conflict into Cambodia and Laos and launched a massive bombing campaign; although many legislators criticized the war, the Congress never denied the funds to fight on the foreign land. For instance, General Fred, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, wrote a Memorandum to the President Ford, which stated, â€Å"We went to Vietnam in the first place to assist the South Vietnamese people–not to defeat the North Vietnamese. We reached out our hand to the South Vietnamese people, and they took it. Even though America tried to help, Vietnam was the land of its people, so they knew their land way better than Americans. Additionally, a reaction to the U. S. Peace moves in Vietnam voiced, â€Å"Indian reactions to the late March, 1968, U. S. peace efforts in Vietnam are somewhat mixed. About four out of ten literates agreed that the U. S. was sincerely trying to end the war, while nearly a third had reservations about the American intent. † Americans started having mixed feelings about the war. Many wanted the war to end and some felt like it wasn’t worth fighting for. The critical turning point came with the Tet Offensive, which began on January 30, 1968 when the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong attacked the key cities and every major American base in South Vietnam. The Tet Offensive underscored the credibility gap between the official statements and the war’s actual progress. On May 1, 1975, the North Vietnamese occupied Saigon and Americans evacuated with 150,000 of their South Vietnamese allies. After all the wars that came before this one, America have always had a stand as the world power, and with that, they believed they could win any war. Johnson faced a dilemma in Vietnam: his predecessors had made a commitment to stop the Communism there and the American public also seemed willing to follow his leadership, but some of his advisers cautioned him against the continued American involvement. Some critics of the war advised the administration to pursue a face-saving way out of Vietnam but Johnson continued to dispatch more advisers, weapons, and economic aid. In 1964 president Johnson, believing that the American credibility was on the line, seized the opportunity to increase the pressure on North Vietnam. However with that in mind, at home, the people were doubting Johnson’s decisions and many totally condemned it. For example, Ronald Ridenhour, a veteran who survived the My Lai Massacre reported to The New York Times, â€Å"It would show the American people and their Government that the policies of force abroad and deception at home were not only antithetical to the principles of a democratic society but low, mean, stupid, brutal and self-destructive as well. † He desired to have the government system to more organize and to follow through with their words. Unlike Johnson, Nixon had a different approach towards the war. Working with Henry Kissinger, his national security assistant and key foreign policy advisor, Nixon exploited the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese relations which began in the early 1960s. After two years of secret negotiations, in February 1972, Nixon became the nation’s first president to set foot on Chinese soil; although the act was largely symbolic, cultural and scientific exchanges followed. As Nixon and Henry Kissinger hoped, the warning of U. S. -Chinese relations increased Soviet responsiveness to their strategy of detente. In Vietnam and elsewhere, Nixon and Kissinger continued to equate the Marxism with a threat to American interests and actively resisted the social revolutions that might lead to the Communism. Jane Fonda in a broadcast at Hanoi, stated, â€Å"One thing that I have learned beyond a shadow of a doubt since I’ve been in this country is that Nixon will never be able to break the spirit of these people; he’ll never be able to turn Vietnam, north and south, into a neo-colony of the United States by bombing, by invading, by attacking in any way. She believed that fighting won’t settle down any problems related with the war ,instead it will just be a waste of time. In the April of 1972, Congress was getting more concerned about abuses of Presidential power day by day; the Senate voted to terminate the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution but the House did not go along. Consequently, Nixon pulled the U. S. soldiers out of Cambodia. When drafted into the war, American soldiers had no idea about how long the war would last, but some of them entered into the war with pride, because they had the notion of fighting on foreign land for their homeland. Little did they know that it will change their lives forever. By observing the photos of wounded marines, it becomes evident that if they were badly injured, they could not return to the war and was sent home. After the war had ended, all the veterans were damaged; physically or mentally. The veterans generally expressed two kinds of reactions to the defeat. For instance, Mr. Ron Ridenhour, who witnessed the undeniable situation of the My Lai Massacre expressed,â€Å"I must take some positive action on this matter. I hope that you will launch an investigation immediately and keep me informed of your progress. † He asked the government to bring the incident into the light. He believed that there should be a reasonable explanation for what happened in My Lai, a suspicious incident. Similar to Mr. Ron Ridenhour, many others regarded the commitment as an honorable one and felt betrayed by the U. S. government for not letting them and their now-dead comrades win the war; others blamed the government for sacrificing the lives of the American youth in an immoral or useless war. Because the Vietnam War was in large part a civil, guerrilla war, combat was remarkably brutal. The Veterans Administration (VA) estimated that nearly one-sixth of the three million veterans suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder. Thus it can be said that the U. S. entered a war for which they had no idea about how to end it. This is valid to say that the technological United States failed in front of united human power. The Vietnam war has mpacted America’s point of view and perspective of its people due to the war being a failure. Delusioned by the thoughts of having victory in every war, and then suddenly not being able to stop the spread of communism within a country abroad, and lastly, the voice of the American people which did support the war; the Vietnam war has changed America by uplifting the absolute trust of the American public on the American Government, American Military and the American leadership.